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This study delves into the multifaceted challenges of food insecurity and its profound impact on school readiness among children in Ghana. Utilizing data from the Ghana Statistical Service and the Comprehensive Food Security and Vulnerability Analysis, and employing ArcGIS for spatial analysis, the research maps high food insecurity areas and overlays population density to prioritize interventions. Findings reveal a stark concentration of food insecurity in northern Ghana, worsened by adverse weather conditions, underscoring the urgency for targeted interventions. The study highlights how food insecurity extends beyond nutritional deficits, affecting socio-economic structures and family dynamics. Children in food-insecure households face significant cognitive, socio-emotional, and physical development hurdles, impeding their readiness for school. Nevertheless, resilience emerges as families tap into resourcefulness and social networks to bolster academic achievement. The research advocates for holistic approaches that address nutritional needs, emotional well-being, community support, and educational resources. Policy recommendations emphasize the importance of social safety nets, school feeding programs, and initiatives to enhance parental engagement and community involvement. In essence, this study bridges empirical evidence with practical implications, providing a roadmap for policy and program development. By understanding and addressing the challenges of food insecurity, strategies can be crafted to improve educational outcomes, foster holistic child development, and pave the way for a more equitable future for Ghana’s youth.

Introduction

Increased food insecurity has raised pressing nutritional and health concerns, partly because over time food insecurity has affected numerous people worldwide. Statistically in 2019, the United Nations estimated around 9.2% of the world’s population were undernourished due to food insecurity (UNicef, 2023). As of June 2023, the World Food Programme estimated that more than 345 million (more than double the number in 2020) people faced high levels of food insecurity, indicating the severity of the issue (World Food Programme, 2023). Food insecurity refers to the constrained or uncertain access to nutritionally sufficient and safe food, along with limited or unclear means to obtain such food through acceptable methods (USDA ERS, 2022). To put it differently, when any member of a family or household lacks consistent access to a sufficient quantity of nutritious food necessary for maintaining an active and healthy life, they are experiencing food insecurity. The inconsistent access to nutritious food results in the deterioration of individuals’ physical health leading to malnutrition, stunted growth, and weakened immune systems. Families with children, especially those with young kids, bear the greatest burden of food insecurity and are particularly susceptible, according to the USDA ERS (2022). To achieve optimal cognitive development and physical well-being in school-aged children, it is crucial that they have consistent access to an adequate quantity and quality of food throughout their entire lives. This suggests that food insecurity poses harm to a child’s educational development and school readiness.

School readiness can be defined as the level of preparation that children obtain before beginning formal instruction, often preschool or kindergarten (Macyet al., 2022). School readiness is a broad notion that incorporates interwoven abilities in many areas of development during childhood, including intellectual, motor, and mental abilities, as well as linguistic, social-emotional, and personality characteristics (Duncanet al., 2018; Jacksonet al., 2021). In addition, it includes a variety of cognitive, social, emotional, physical, and intellectual skills that enable children to participate effectively in the educational environment (Macyet al., 2022). According to research, school readiness has a significant impact on future educational adjustment and accomplishment, emotional and behavioral overall wellness, and the ability to thrive throughout one’s life (Ghandouret al., 2021; Jacksonet al., 2021).

In particular, many families struggling with food insecurity face challenges in providing nutritious meals, hindering children’s physical and cognitive development (Prangthipet al., 2019). Limited access to balanced diets can impair children’s concentration, energy levels, and overall health, affecting their preparedness for school. Malnutrition can lead to delayed cognitive and socio-emotional development, potentially impacting academic performance and social integration (Robertset al., 2022). Thus, food insecurity creates serious challenges for school readiness.

Problem Statement

Despite Ghana’s lower-middle-income status and stable economic growth, a substantial portion of its population, approximately 42.1%, faces persistent food insecurity (National Food Buffer Stock Company of Ghana, 2022). This challenge arises from a combination of economic disparities, outdated agricultural practices, climate variability, and limited social safety nets (Sarfoet al., 2021; Yeboahet al., 2021). The problem at hand extends beyond economic indicators, as the paradox of food insecurity persists despite overall national progress. The intricate nature of this issue is underscored by its profound impact on child development and school readiness. Insufficient access to nutritious meals impedes children’s physical, cognitive, and socio-emotional well-being, hindering their academic success. Therefore, there is an urgent need for targeted interventions that address the multifaceted factors contributing to food insecurity, ensuring equitable access to quality education and fostering optimal child development.

Objectives of the Study

1. To assess the spatial distribution of food insecurity in Ghana, with a focus on vulnerable regions and high-risk districts, considering economic disparities and environmental factors.

2. To investigate the multifaceted impact of food insecurity on child development and school readiness, examining nutritional, cognitive, socio-emotional, and physical dimensions.

Food insecurity creates a multifaceted challenge that affects physical, cognitive, emotional, and social development, collectively hindering their overall school readiness and ultimately affecting their ability to engage effectively in educational settings. Physically, inadequate access to nutritious meals leads to malnutrition and health issues (Mohammed, 2023). Malnourished children experience stunted growth, compromised immune systems, and reduced energy levels, hindering their attendance and active participation in school. Cognitively, essential nutrients are crucial for brain development (Aurinoet al., 2020). Insufficient nutrition can lead to cognitive deficits, impacting attention, memory, and problem-solving skills. This translates into difficulties grasping new concepts, completing tasks, and succeeding academically. Emotionally, food insecurity can cause stress, anxiety, and low self-esteem (de Oliveiraet al., 2020). The emotional toll affects children’s self-confidence and social interactions, making it harder for them to engage positively with peers and teachers in the classroom. Socially, food-insecure children might experience isolation due to their circumstances, affecting their ability to form meaningful relationships and engage in group activities, crucial for holistic school readiness (Jacksonet al., 2021). These difficulties create a cycle of disadvantage, as children from food-insecure households may start school at a disadvantage, facing barriers in learning, social interaction, and overall school readiness.

As a result, a variety of interventions have been made to deal with food insecurity in homes and families. These strategies include government-led initiatives such as subsidized food distribution, cash transfer programs, and nutritional supplementation. Non-governmental organizations often implement community-based efforts like food banks, agricultural support, and education on sustainable farming practices. School feeding programs, both locally and internationally, have aimed to ensure children receive regular meals, enhancing their nutrition and educational engagement.

Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) has the largest percentage of young children who are malnourished despite these measures. The area stands out for having the highest number and proportion of children aged three and four (29.4 million, which equates to 44%) who do not achieve essential cognitive and psycho-social developmental milestones necessary for school readiness (Aurinoet al., 2020). According to information obtained from the 2022 Yearly Household Income and Expenditure Survey, 42.1% of Ghanaians (this include household and families) are food insecure (National Food Buffer Stock Company of Ghana, 2022). Furthermore, 25 percent of young children are severely malnourished (Aurinoet al., 2020) and therefore, lacked the required cognitive ability for school development and readiness. Nevertheless, research concerning the connection between household food insecurity and children’s educational readiness has been notably limited. Existing studies conducted in low-middle-income countries have mainly concentrated on the relationship between food insecurity and child nutritional and physical health (Aurinoet al., 2020; de Oliveiraet al., 2020), often overlooking other vital aspects of school readiness of children from food-insecure families like early cognitive, behavioural, and socio-emotional abilities.

This study holds paramount importance for the study area, primarily Ghana, as it delves into the intricate challenges of food insecurity and its profound implications on child development and school readiness. Despite the nation’s economic progress, the persistent issue of food insecurity affecting over 42% of the population signifies a critical gap in the existing socio-economic landscape (National Food Buffer Stock Company of Ghana, 2022). Understanding the nuanced factors contributing to this problem, including economic disparities, outdated agricultural practices, and climate variability, is crucial for formulating targeted interventions. The study sheds light on the complex interplay between food insecurity and child development, emphasizing the multifaceted consequences on physical health, cognitive abilities, and socio-emotional well-being. By highlighting vulnerable regions, such as the northern areas facing adverse weather conditions, the research provides essential insights for policymakers and practitioners. This knowledge is pivotal for shaping effective, region-specific strategies that address not only immediate nutritional needs but also the broader socio-economic and educational factors hindering school readiness. Ultimately, the study contributes to a more holistic understanding of Ghana’s relationship with food insecurity, providing a foundation for comprehensive interventions that strive for equitable access to quality education and optimal child development.

Consequently, this study is purposed to explore the experience of food-insecure families and its influence on the school readiness of their school-going children in Ghana taking into consideration the cognitive, behavioral, and socio-emotional abilities. The findings of the research hold significance in unveiling the nuanced impact of food insecurity on children’s educational preparedness. It will shed light on multifaceted challenges faced by families, informing effective interventions to enhance child development and educational outcomes in the context of food insecurity.

Literature Review

Theoretical Framework

Social Cognitive Theory

Albert Bandura’s concept of the social cognitive theory offers insights into how the lived experiences of food-insecure families intersect with children’s school readiness. This theory posits that individuals learn from observing others and that their beliefs, attitudes, and self-efficacy influence their behavior (Abdullah, 2019).

Applied to the context of food insecurity and school readiness this theory helps elucidate the multifaceted dynamics at play. Particularly, in food-insecure families, children often witness their parents’ struggles to provide adequate nutrition. Observing these challenges can shape their perceptions of their capabilities and the value of education. If parents exhibit feelings of helplessness due to food insecurity, children might internalize a similar sense of ineffectiveness in their ability to learn, impacting their self-efficacy for academic tasks. Additionally, limited access to nutritious meals might lead children to believe that their energy levels are insufficient for engaging effectively in school activities. Moreover, exposure to food scarcity can influence children’s attitudes towards learning. If children perceive that their family’s efforts to secure food are prioritized over education, they may develop a belief that education is less important. Conversely, if parents actively involve children in finding solutions to food scarcity, it can enhance their problem-solving skills and foster a sense of self-efficacy that transcends into their academic pursuits.

Furthermore, the theory suggests that children’s observational learning extends beyond their immediate family. Peers, teachers, and community members also serve as role models. A food-insecure child might observe peers who face similar challenges, potentially reinforcing a collective sense of limited potential. Conversely, exposure to supportive teachers or mentors who encourage growth despite adversities can enhance a child’s self-efficacy and motivation to overcome barriers, including food insecurity, and strive for academic success. The Social Cognitive Theory underscores that children’s perceptions, attitudes, and self-efficacy are influenced by their observations and experiences within the context of food-insecure families. By recognizing these influences and leveraging positive role models, interventions can be designed to enhance children’s confidence, attitudes, and motivation for learning, thus improving their overall school readiness despite the challenges posed by food insecurity.

Ecological Systems Theory

The ecological systems theory of Urie Bronfenbrenner sees the development of children as an intricate network of interactions impacted by many levels of the environment, from close-knit family and school environments to more general social norms, regulations, and customs (Evans, 2023). It offers a comprehensive lens through which to investigate the lived experiences of food-insecure families and the impact of those experiences on children’s school readiness in many interrelated situations. The microsystem, mesosystem, exosystem, and macrosystem are the five separate systems that Bronfenbrenner used to categorize an individual’s environment (Bronfenbrenner, 1977). One of the simplest ways to grasp Urie Bronfenbrenner’s ecological systems concepts is by referring to visual diagrams that depict his theories on the ecology of human development, as illustrated in Fig. 1.

Fig. 1. A modified visual representation of Bronfenbrenner’s ecological theory, based on Berger (2007) (Source: Stanger, 2011).

Starting with the microsystem, the immediate family plays a pivotal role. Food-insecure families often grapple with limited resources, affecting the quality and quantity of meals. Within this context, children’s physical health and cognitive development may be compromised, impacting their readiness for school. In the mesosystem, the interaction between family and school becomes crucial. A lack of proper nutrition can lead to health issues that affect attendance and concentration in class, potentially widening the gap between food-insecure children and their peers. Moving to the exosystem, community resources and social services play a role. Limited access to food assistance programs can exacerbate food insecurity. In turn, this scarcity can lead to stressors affecting family dynamics, indirectly influencing children’s emotional well-being and ability to engage effectively in learning. The macrosystem, comprising cultural and societal values, shapes attitudes toward education and food security. Socioeconomic disparities and cultural norms may influence how food-insecure families perceive education’s significance, potentially impacting children’s motivation and school engagement. The chronosystem highlights the dynamic nature of these experiences over time. Prolonged food insecurity can lead to persistent physical and psychological challenges that hinder school readiness. However, positive interventions, such as improved access to nutritious meals and support services, can alter these trajectories and mitigate negative impacts.

In sum, the Ecological Systems Theory underscores that food insecurity’s impact on children’s school readiness is not isolated but occurs within a web of interconnected systems. Addressing these challenges requires a holistic approach that considers family, school, community, cultural, and societal factors to provide comprehensive support for food-insecure families and enhance children’s readiness for successful education.

Concept of Food Security

To comprehend food insecurity, it is necessary to comprehend what food security entails. According to Stephenset al. (2018), The concept of food security is built on intricate, multiscale spatiotemporal interactions that involve several human and natural factors (Djan, 2023a). Schleifer and Sun (2020) acknowledged that food security, the consistent availability of enough wholesome food that is safe to eat in order to maintain good health, has grown alongside the complexity of contemporary global agricultural systems. Nevertheless, a globally agreed definition of food security by the World Food Summit argues that when everyone has physical and financial access to enough safe, nourishing food that meets their nutritional requirements and food choices for a healthy and energetic existence, then food is secure. According to this concept, to attain food security, four key dimensions must be met. These consist of:

a) Food Availability

Food availability pertains to the amount of food that is readily available in a certain nation or region (Byaruhanga & Isgren, 2023). It is essential for ensuring that there is enough food to suit everyone’s requirements. However, it’s crucial to remember that simply having access to food is not enough to guarantee food security (Maxwell & Smith, 2014). Food must not only be available, but also inexpensive, and consumed in a way that meets the population’s nutritional needs. Typically, discussions of food availability focus on the household or regional level and rarely extend to the individual level. However, it’s worth noting that a household may achieve food and nutrition security even if the broader area or country does not. Consequently, assessing food availability can be a complex task, often posing challenges when distinguishing between household-level availability and national or regional availability (WHO, 2020).

b) Food Accessibility

Food accessibility refers to the capability of both households and individuals within families are able to acquire the necessary food for a diet rich in nutrients (Saint Villeet al., 2019). It involves two primary dimensions: physical accessibility and financial accessibility. Physical accessibility is determined by the presence of resources such as financial capital (for purchasing food), the capacity for physical mobility (to obtain food), and knowledge (to make informed decisions about access) (Stephenset al., 2018). This underscores the point that judging adequate food access should not be solely based on a household’s ability to produce its own food but should also consider its ability to travel to markets and procure food. Consequently, even when a household is capable of food production, its capacity to generate income becomes pivotal in establishing food and nutrition accessibility (Simelane & Worth, 2020).

c) Food Utilization

Food utilization is the capacity of the human body to extract and utilize nutrients from the food it ingests (Simelane & Worth, 2020). The socioeconomic aspects of food are also included by this idea, which includes things like information, habits, and decision-making processes that are greatly impacted by cultural norms and educational attainment. These variables include decisions on the kinds of foods to buy, how to prepare them, and how fairly to distribute food across households. Additionally, it takes into account who consumes certain meals in the home, when they are consumed, and how they are consumed (Simelane & Worth, 2020).

d) Stability

Food stability is a population’s ongoing availability of a variety of food choices that satisfy their dietary requirements and preferences, especially during times of shock or stress (Savaryet al., 2022). Food security is essential for protecting people from the negative effects of food instability (Saint Villeet al., 2019). Food stability may be affected by a number of variables, including climate change, economic ups and downs, and political unrest (Djan, 2023b). Production, delivery, and accessibility of food may be hampered by these factors. As a result, establishing food security requires reliable access to and consumption of the proper kinds of food on a regular basis (Simelane & Worth, 2020).

Overview of Food Insecurity in Ghana

Ghana’s food insecurity is a complex and intricate challenge that originates from a convergence of multifarious factors, intricately woven into the fabric of the nation’s socio-economic landscape (Moreno, 2022). Among these factors are profound economic disparities that hinder equitable access to resources, agricultural limitations resulting from small-scale farming practices and outdated technologies, climate variability that brings erratic weather patterns, and a lack of robust social safety nets to buffer vulnerable households (Hesselberg & Yaro, 2006). Despite Ghana’s position as a lower-middle-income country, exhibiting relatively stable economic growth, a substantial segment of its populace continues to grapple with various degrees of food insecurity. This paradox underscores the intricate nature of the issue, as economic progress has not uniformly translated into improved access to adequate nutrition for all. Recent data starkly underline the persistent nature of the challenge, revealing that approximately 42.1% of the population remains susceptible to food insecurity’s shadow (National Food Buffer Stock Company of Ghana, 2022).

Consequently, Ghana has undertaken multifaceted endeavours to mitigate household food insecurity, thereby fostering improved child development (Aurinoet al., 2020). Government-led initiatives encompass subsidized food distribution programs and social safety nets, aiming to alleviate immediate hunger and enhance families’ food access. School feeding programs have been implemented to enhance children’s nutrition and school attendance, ultimately fostering their cognitive and physical development. Collaborations with international organizations and NGOs have facilitated agricultural support, empowering communities with sustainable farming techniques and income-generating opportunities.

Moreover, Ghana’s efforts extend to policy frameworks that promote agricultural growth (like the initiative Planting for Food and Jobs, which seeks to increase agricultural output) rural development and poverty reduction. Investments in infrastructure and irrigation systems aim to enhance agricultural productivity and mitigate the impacts of climate variability. Educational campaigns raise awareness about optimal nutrition and childcare practices, equipping caregivers with essential knowledge. By addressing the root causes of food insecurity through holistic strategies, Ghana endeavors to bolster child development, ensuring that children are adequately nourished and provided with the environment necessary for their cognitive, socio-emotional, and physical growth.

The Influence of Food Insecurity on Readiness for School

Food insecurity plays a crucial role in shaping a child’s school readiness, encompassing their physical, cognitive, and socio-emotional preparedness for the educational environment. Insufficient access to nutritious and consistent meals can have multifaceted variables that affect a child’s capacity for academic success (Loofbourrow & Scherr, 2023). Physically, inadequate nutrition stemming from food insecurity can lead to stunted growth, weakened immune systems, and increased susceptibility to illnesses. These health challenges can result in absenteeism, hindering regular attendance and disrupting learning continuity (Baidenet al., 2020). Poor physical health can also impede a child’s energy levels, making it harder for them to actively participate in classroom activities and engage with their peers.

The cognitive ramifications of food insecurity are multifaceted and profound. Insufficient access to proper nutrition can impede optimal brain development, resulting in a decelerated pace of cognitive growth (Robertset al., 2022). Children facing food insecurity may struggle with concentration, finding it challenging to focus their attention on tasks and lessons within the classroom. Moreover, the limited availability of essential nutrients can compromise memory retention, making it difficult for them to retain and recall learned information. As a result, their ability to grasp new concepts and retain knowledge is hampered (Mohammed, 2023). Complex tasks, such as comprehending intricate instructions and completing assignments at the expected grade level, become more onerous. These cognitive obstacles not only impact academic performance but can also contribute to a child’s sense of frustration and reduced self-confidence in their learning abilities.

Socio-emotionally, the emotional toll arising from the spectre of food insecurity can exert a profound impact on a child’s holistic development (Aurinoet al., 2020). Persistent stress and anxiety stemming from uncertain access to nourishing meals can detrimentally influence various facets of their well-being (Suárez-Lópezet al., 2023). Their self-esteem, a fundamental pillar of emotional resilience, can be eroded as they grapple with feelings of inadequacy due to circumstances beyond their control. Furthermore, the ability to regulate emotions and manage responses in various situations can be compromised. The emotional rollercoaster caused by food insecurity can result in emotional outbursts, mood swings, or withdrawal, disrupting their capacity to engage effectively with peers and educators. The pivotal skill of forming relationships can be hindered as well. The stress-induced emotional barriers might impede the development of trust and openness necessary for forging connections, both of which are essential for collaborative learning and social integration (Jacksonet al., 2021). Consequently, the intricate interplay between food insecurity and socio-emotional challenges can hamper a child’s capacity to navigate the intricate dynamics of classroom settings. Collectively, the repercussions of food insecurity on physical health, cognitive development, and socio-emotional well-being may seriously impair a child’s school preparedness. Addressing food insecurity is therefore crucial not only for ensuring children’s basic well-being but also for providing them with the foundational tools they need to excel academically and socially, setting the stage for a successful educational journey.

Empirical Review

Azupogoet al. (2023) investigated the relationship between depression in teenage females living in Northern Ghana and family food insecurity. This study focused on teenage females between the ages of 10 and 17 and involves the analysis of data from the Ten2Twenty-Ghana randomized controlled experiment. According to the data, 70.3% of teenage girls’ homes had food insecurity, and over 20.1% of adolescent girls were thought to be suffering from depression. In this group, 18.0% had severe food insecurity whereas 22.9% experienced moderate food insecurity. Adolescent females from moderately and severely food insecure homes showed approximately three times greater odds of being categorized as depressed compared to their peers from food secure households, even after taking into account potential influencing variables. Adolescent females from food-insecure homes were around twice as likely to suffer sadness compared to those from food-secure households, according to both unadjusted and adjusted models. The negative effects on teenagers’ mental health and academic preparation are highlighted by this research.

Using a mixed-methods approach, another study looked at the relationship between children in Ghana’s food shortages and their preparation for school (Loofbourrow & Scherr, 2023). A cross-sectional survey was administered to 600 mothers of children aged 3 to 5 years, and qualitative interviews were conducted with 20 mothers of children with food insecurity. Forty per cent of households, according to the study, were affected by food insecurity. The qualitative interviews demonstrated that food insecurity had a significant detrimental effect on the school preparedness of children, including their physical health, cognitive development, and socioemotional well-being. The study concluded that food insecurity is a major barrier to children’s school readiness in Ghana and that interventions are necessary to address this issue.

Research by Baidenet al. (2020) looked at how family food hardship affected junior high school pupils’ absences from school in Ghana. School absence was the main outcome of their study, which used binary logistic regression to examine a sample of 1,121 students aged 11 to 18 using data from the 2012 Ghana Global School-based Health Survey. 58.1% of the 1,121 pupils whose families were looked into were from food-insecure homes, and 39.8% had admitted to skipping school without permission in the month before. After taking into consideration a number of contributing variables, it was shown that children from food-insecure homes had 1.56 times the likelihood of unapproved absences from school as those from food-secure families. A history of suicidal ideation, involvement in school fights, feelings of loneliness, bullying experiences, alcohol usage, and illegal drug use were additional factors that contributed to absence from school. A 4% predicted reduction in the chance of school absence is expected for each incremental point rise in parental support scores, which is an interesting finding as a protective factor against school absenteeism. These results highlight the need of tackling the systemic and distant causes of food poverty in order to reduce school absence, increase student enrolment, and raise attendance levels.

Tamiruet al. (2016) sought to determine how food hardship affected primary school adolescents’ absence from class. Their study concentrated on a cross-sectional study conducted in a primary school with teenagers as participants. It was clear from comparing adolescents from food-secure families to those from food-insecure households that the rates of school absence were much greater for those from food-secure households. According to the findings of multivariable logistic regression analysis, there is a link between poor school attendance and home food insecurity. Contrarily, variables including living in metropolitan regions, having a female head of family, and being a man were linked adversely to absence from school. In addition, food insecurity within homes was associated with a lack of education among mothers and a poor economic position of the household. It’s noteworthy to note that having cattle showed a bad correlation with food insecurity in the home. This study underlined the strong link between teenage absences from school and food poverty at home. Furthermore, associations between food security and elements like mom’s education and household income were shown to be highly significant. National policies and initiatives should give priority to methods that improve family income-earning capacity and general socioeconomic position in order to address the issue of household food insecurity, a significant factor in teenage school absence.

Mohammed (2023) looked at the effects of austerity measures on kids’ attendance at school in a qualitative case study. To collect pertinent data, the researcher conducted two focus groups with instructors from these schools and semi-structured interviews with kids from two public elementary schools in Ghana. The study clarified the ways in which the food security of pupils may be affected by the discretionary coping mechanisms used by school lunch service providers. These effects may, in turn, lead to pupils being less engaged in class activities and a rise in both absenteeism and truancy.

Method

Data Collection and Compilation

Spatial data from multiple reputable sources, including the Ghana Statistical Service (GSS), the Ministry of Food and Agriculture (MOFA), and the Comprehensive Food Security and Vulnerability Analysis (CFSVA), constituted the foundational dataset for conducting the population density and food insecurity analysis across the various regions in Ghana. This dataset encompassed crucial information on food security indicators, including prevalence rates, population density figures, administrative boundaries delineating regions and districts, and important geographical features. The integration of these diverse datasets within the Geographic Information System (GIS) framework facilitated a comprehensive examination of the complex interplay between food security and population density, thereby enhancing our capacity to formulate informed strategies for addressing these critical issues in Ghana.

Data Integration

We integrated the collected data into ArcGIS Desktop, a powerful Geographic Information System (GIS) software, and performed geospatial analysis to combine food security concentration and population density data layers. This integration allowed us to create comprehensive visual representations of the spatial distribution of food security and population density, enabling a deeper understanding of how these factors intersect and providing valuable insights for targeted intervention and policy planning.

Spatial Analysis

We conducted a detailed analysis to calculate food insecurity prevalence rates not only at the regional level but also at the district level, providing a granular understanding of food security challenges in Ghana. Using the powerful ArcGIS software, we generated thematic maps that vividly depicted food insecurity levels across the country, offering a visual representation of the disparities. Additionally, we employed hotspot analysis techniques within ArcGIS to identify and highlight regions characterized by high food insecurity concentrations, pinpointing areas where immediate attention and targeted interventions may be most urgently required. This comprehensive approach enabled us to gain valuable insights into the geographical distribution of food insecurity and inform data-driven policy and program decisions for more effective outcomes.

Overlay Analysis

To better comprehend the intricate relationship between population density and food insecurity, we conducted an overlay analysis. This process involved merging the food insecurity maps with population density maps, allowing us to identify areas where high food insecurity coincides with dense populations. By employing spatial analysis tools, we quantified the extent of this overlap, providing valuable insights into priority regions where the challenges of food insecurity are compounded by densely populated communities. This nuanced analysis enables us to prioritize resources and interventions, directing them towards the areas where the need is most critical, and facilitating targeted efforts to address the multifaceted issues of food security and population density.

Results

Spatial Concentration of Food Insecurity and Population Density in Ghana

The results show that food insecurity is primarily clustered within Ghana’s five northern regions (Figs. 1 and 2), namely, the Upper East region (with a prevalence of 48.7%), North East region (33%), Northern region (30.7%), Upper West region (22.8%), and Savannah region (22.6%). Fig. 2 shows the population density and food Insecurity concentration in the various regions of Ghana.

Fig. 2. Population Density (panel a) and food Insecurity concentration (%) (panel b) by region.

Fig. 3 illustrates the spatial distribution of food insecurity concentrations across Ghana, overlaid with regional population density statistics. The Upper East Region exhibits the highest food insecurity concentration, ranging from 33.01% to 48.70%, despite having a relatively low population density of 1,301,221. In contrast, Greater Accra, with the highest population density (5,446,237), shows a significantly lower food insecurity concentration of 0.00% to 22.60%. Regions such as Northern and North East also display moderate levels of food insecurity (22.61% to 33.00%), with populations of 2,310,943 and 658,903, respectively. Notably, regions with higher population densities, such as Ashanti (5,432,485), exhibit relatively low food insecurity percentages. This inverse trend underscores the potential influence of population density on food security outcomes, with densely populated areas having improved access to resources and services.

Fig. 3. Overlay results of population density and food insecurity concentration by region.

The regions in Ghana most susceptible to adverse weather conditions, such as floods and droughts, coincide with regions experiencing the highest levels of food insecurity. These regions face a disproportionate impact of fluctuating food prices, whether it’s during their periods of scarcity or abundance. Among the districts in the country grappling with the highest rates of food insecurity, Kassena Nankana West (78.8%), Karaga (75.9%), Builsa South (74.5%), Tatale (68.4%), Bolgatanga East (66.3%), Kumbungu (61.2%), Jirapa (61.0%), Chereponi (60.3%), Tempane (59.2%), and Bongo (57.3%) stand out, all of which are situated within the aforementioned regions. Food insecurity extends beyond just northern Ghana; there are also pockets of food-insecure areas in the southern part of the country. Tarkwa-Nsuaem district in the Western Region has a food insecurity rate of 71.4%. Additionally, food insecurity is a prevailing issue in Ada West (35.9%) within the Greater Accra Region, Sekyere Afram Plains (34%) in the Ashanti Region, Ayensuano (31.7%) in the Eastern Region, and Asunafo South (31.4%) in the Ahafo Region. There were notable variations in food insecurity when considering absolute numbers across regions. In the Ashanti Region, 6.2% of the population, equivalent to 369,096 individuals, face challenges accessing adequate and nutritious food for a healthy and active life. This makes it the third region with the highest number of food-insecure people, following the Northern Region (598,706) and the Upper East Region (634,293). Additionally, the Eastern Region has 261,526 of its residents experiencing food insecurity.

Discussion

This study serves as a comprehensive exploration into the complex interconnection between food insecurity and the preparedness of Ghanaian children for their educational journey, offering invaluable insights into the myriad challenges confronting families experiencing food insecurity. The revelations of this research align harmoniously with existing literature, underlining the enduring nutritional tribulations faced by these families. These challenges act as formidable impediments, impeding their capacity to furnish their children with well-rounded and nourishing meals (Suárez-Lópezet al., 2023). The insufficiency of essential nutrients not only compromises the expected trajectory of physical growth but also detrimentally affects cognitive capabilities and overall well-being, erecting substantial barriers that hinder active and meaningful participation in various learning endeavors. Thus, the study reinforces and builds upon the existing body of knowledge, shedding light on the intricate ways in which food insecurity manifests its impact on both the physiological and cognitive dimensions of a child’s educational readiness.

Moreover, this study seamlessly integrates with prior research, consistently affirming that children hailing from food-insecure households frequently manifest reduced cognitive capacities, resulting in notable challenges related to attention span and memory retention (Duncanet al., 2018). These identified cognitive limitations cast a shadow on scholastic achievements, presenting obstacles in grasping lesson content, completing assignments, and actively participating in classroom discussions. The lower cognitive abilities attributed to the consequences of food insecurity thus emerge as formidable barriers, impeding the effective learning processes of affected children. This resonates with existing literature and expands our understanding of how food insecurity intricately intertwines with cognitive functions, shaping the educational landscape for these children and influencing their academic progress and overall educational experiences.

The study underscores a critical aspect of the impact of food insecurity by revealing its catalyzing effect on subpar attendance rates in affected children, as elucidated by Baidenet al. (2020). The unpredictable nature of meal availability, a core issue linked to food insecurity, directly undermines the energy reserves and general health of these children, consequently leading to a notable increase in absenteeism. Even when these children manage to attend school, they grapple with the dual challenges of diminished vitality and focus, creating hurdles in their ability to comprehensively engage in classroom activities and collaborative learning. This dual impact, characterized by both absenteeism and reduced participation, serves as a poignant illustration of how food insecurity doesn’t merely disrupt physical well-being but, critically, hampers educational involvement. This disruption has a cascading effect, ultimately influencing the overall academic progress of these children, highlighting the intricate connections between nutritional well-being and educational outcomes in the context of food insecurity.

Beyond the physical and cognitive aspects, the study delves into the profound impact of food insecurity on emotional well-being. Children in food-insecure situations contend with heightened stress, anxiety, and diminished self-esteem (Suárez-Lópezet al., 2023). The emotional weight of living with scarcity significantly influences their self-assurance and social engagements, potentially leading to sensations of isolation and detachment within the school milieu. Moreover, the study points out the strain on family relationships, as parents experience guilt and stress over their inability to provide adequate meals, and children feel frustrated or neglected. These emotional hurdles spill over into children’s readiness for school, affecting their emotional state and focus.

In the face of these formidable challenges, the study illuminates a glimmer of hope, revealing that access to community resources acts as a crucial mitigating factor for the severity of food insecurity on school readiness. Notably, community resources such as food assistance programs, social support networks, and school feeding initiatives emerge as pivotal elements in alleviating the impact of food insecurity on children’s readiness for school. These findings highlight the significance of targeted interventions and robust support systems that extend beyond immediate nutritional needs. By addressing the broader socio-economic and emotional factors that impede school readiness, these community resources play a pivotal role in creating a more conducive environment for children facing food insecurity to thrive academically. The data analysis, drawing on reputable sources such as the Ghana Statistical Service (GSS), the Ministry of Food and Agriculture (MOFA), and the Comprehensive Food Security and Vulnerability Analysis (CFSVA), provides a comprehensive and nuanced understanding of the multifaceted nature of food insecurity across the country. The concentration of food insecurity in the five northern regions serves as a stark reminder of the urgency in addressing this issue as a regional priority. These regions not only contend with higher prevalence rates of food insecurity but also grapple with the compounding challenges of adverse weather conditions. This vulnerability emphasizes the need for region-specific interventions, considering the broader context of environmental factors that exacerbate the plight of these populations. The geographic distribution of food insecurity, as revealed in the data analysis, further emphasizes the importance of tailored, location-specific strategies to effectively mitigate the impact of food insecurity on vulnerable populations.

Notably, the study unveils pockets of vulnerability in southern regions, emphasizing the need for a comprehensive, nationwide approach to addressing food insecurity. The disparity between regions in terms of absolute numbers of food-insecure individuals, with the Ashanti Region ranking third, raises concerns. This underscores the importance of understanding the regional context and tailoring interventions accordingly.

In conclusion, the data analysis presented here sheds light on the complexity of food insecurity in Ghana, calling for a multifaceted response. Addressing food insecurity requires not only immediate relief efforts but also long-term strategies focused on sustainable agriculture, improved access to education and employment opportunities, and climate resilience. By adopting a holistic approach, Ghana can make significant strides toward achieving food security for all its citizens, irrespective of geographic location or prevailing challenges. This research, with its nuanced findings, contributes to the broader discourse on food insecurity, emphasizing the need for comprehensive interventions and policy considerations to ensure equitable access to quality education for all children.

Conclusion

This study sheds light on the multifaceted challenges faced by families grappling with food insecurity in Ghana and underscores its profound influence on children’s readiness for school. Our findings reveal that food insecurity extends beyond mere nutritional concerns, infiltrating socio-economic structures and family relationships. The daily struggle for sustenance engenders stress, impacting parents’ ability to engage in enriching interactions with their children. Consequently, children’s cognitive, socio-emotional, and physical development can be compromised, leading to potential setbacks in school readiness. However, amidst these adversities, glimmers of resilience emerge. Some families employ resourcefulness and social networks to mitigate the impact of food insecurity on the academic achievement of children.

The data analysis presented here provides a comprehensive understanding of the multifaceted challenges of food insecurity within the country. The pronounced concentration of food insecurity in the five northern regions calls for immediate attention and region-specific interventions. These regions are not only grappling with elevated food insecurity levels but are also more susceptible to adverse weather conditions, compounding the vulnerability of their populations. Furthermore, the presence of food-insecure pockets in the southern regions emphasizes that food insecurity is not solely a northern issue. A holistic nationwide approach is essential to address this challenge comprehensively, recognizing both regional disparities and localized factors. The disparity in absolute numbers of food-insecure individuals across regions underscores the need for tailored responses that consider the unique circumstances of each region. Addressing food insecurity in Ghana requires coordinated efforts, both immediate and long-term. Sustainable solutions encompass improving agricultural practices, enhancing access to education and employment opportunities, and building climate resilience. By adopting a comprehensive approach, Ghana can make significant strides toward achieving the overarching goal of food security for all its citizens, regardless of their geographic location or prevailing challenges.

Ultimately, this study emphasizes the urgency of dealing with food insecurity, not only to alleviate immediate concerns but also to fortify children’s foundational readiness for schooling, fostering a more equitable educational landscape in Ghana. The findings underscore the multifaceted nature of Ghana’s relationship with food insecurity and preparation for school. They emphasize the need for comprehensive interventions that address nutritional needs, emotional well-being, community support, and educational resources to break the cycle of disadvantage and ensure equitable access to quality education for all children, regardless of their family’s food security status.

Research Implications

For Policy: This study holds crucial implications for policy formulation and implementation. By shedding light on the intricate challenges faced by food-insecure families and their impact on children’s school readiness, this research provides a foundation for informed policy interventions. Policymakers can utilize these findings to design targeted programs that address not only immediate nutritional needs but also the broader socio-economic and educational factors that hinder school readiness. The research underscores the necessity of comprehensive social safety nets, school feeding programs, and initiatives to enhance parental engagement and community support. Additionally, insights into the resilience exhibited by families can guide the development of empowerment programs aimed at improving coping strategies. Ultimately, the research bridges the gap between empirical evidence and policy action, contributing to a more holistic and effective approach to combating food insecurity and fostering children’s optimal development within the educational landscape.

Practical Considerations

The research offers vital insights for practical interventions. Understanding the challenges faced by food-insecure families and their impact on school readiness is crucial for informed policy and program development. This research underscores the need for comprehensive support mechanisms that extend beyond nutritional assistance. Education and awareness campaigns can empower families to maximize available resources for optimal child development. School feeding programs can address both nutritional and cognitive needs. Community-based initiatives can bridge gaps in social and emotional development. Moreover, policymakers can prioritize social safety nets, agricultural advancements, and equitable economic opportunities to alleviate food insecurity’s root causes. By translating research findings into actionable strategies, practitioners can enhance educational outcomes, promote holistic child development, and contribute to a more equitable future for Ghana’s youth.

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